HR Development & Organizational Behaviour 2023

Answer: (ii) Study of human behaviour in organizations

Solution: OB is the systematic study of how individuals, groups, and structures affect behaviour within organizations.

Answer: (ii) Achievement and recognition

Solution: Herzberg's motivators (satisfiers) include achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, and advancement. Salary is a hygiene factor.

Answer: (ii) Meaning of words

Solution: Semantic barriers arise from difficulties in the meaning of words, symbols, or language used in communication.

Answer: (ii) B.F. Skinner

Solution: B.F. Skinner developed operant conditioning, which states that behaviour is a function of its consequences (reinforcement/punishment).

Answer: (ii) Members from different departments

Solution: Cross-functional teams bring together people from different departments or functional areas to work on a common task.

Answer: (ii) Adding more meaningful tasks and responsibilities

Solution: Job enrichment (vertical loading) involves adding depth to a job — more responsibility, autonomy, control, and decision-making.

Answer: (ii) Few hierarchical levels

Solution: A flat structure has wide span of control and few layers between top management and employees, enabling faster communication.

Answer: (i) Cognitive, Affective, Behavioural

Solution: Attitude has three components: Cognitive (beliefs/thoughts), Affective (feelings/emotions), and Behavioural (actions/intentions).

Answer: (ii) Knowledge and skills

Solution: Expert power comes from possessing specialized knowledge, skills, or expertise that others need and value.

Answer: (ii) Meditation and yoga

Solution: Personal/individual strategies for stress management include meditation, yoga, exercise, time management, and relaxation techniques.

Answer:

Definition: An attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object, person, or situation.

Components of Attitude (ABC Model):

1. Affective Component:

• Emotional or feeling segment
• "I feel excited about my promotion"
• Involves likes and dislikes
• Often the most critical component

2. Behavioural Component:

• Intention to behave in a certain way
• "I plan to work harder for my next promotion"
• Predisposition to act
• May not always match attitude due to situational constraints

3. Cognitive Component:

• Belief or knowledge segment
• "I believe my company rewards hard work"
• Based on information and evaluation
• Rational assessment of the attitude object

Functions of Attitude (Katz's Functional Theory):

1. Adjustment/Utilitarian Function:

• Helps gain rewards and avoid punishments
• Attitude toward objects that satisfy needs is positive

2. Ego-Defensive Function:

• Protects self-image and self-esteem
• Defense mechanisms against threats

3. Value-Expressive Function:

• Expresses central values and self-concept
• Gives positive expression to ideals

4. Knowledge Function:

• Provides frame of reference for understanding
• Helps organize and structure experience

Answer:

Definition: Job satisfaction is a positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences. It reflects how content an individual is with their job.

Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction:

1. Work Itself:

• Nature of tasks (interesting, challenging, varied)
• Skill utilization and autonomy
• Clarity of role and expectations
• Sense of accomplishment

2. Pay/Compensation:

• Fair and equitable pay
• Pay compared to similar jobs (external equity)
• Pay relative to coworkers (internal equity)
• Benefits and perks

3. Promotion Opportunities:

• Availability of advancement
• Fairness of promotion criteria
• Career growth paths
• Skill development opportunities

4. Supervision:

• Supportive and competent supervisors
• Fair treatment
• Communication with supervisors
• Technical and emotional support

5. Work Group/Colleagues:

• Friendly and supportive coworkers
• Team cohesion
• Social interactions
• Collaborative environment

6. Working Conditions:

• Physical environment (temperature, lighting, space)
• Tools and equipment
• Safety measures
• Work-life balance

Consequences of Job Dissatisfaction:

1. Exit: Leaving the organization
2. Voice: Attempting to improve conditions
3. Loyalty: Passively waiting for improvement
4. Neglect: Allowing conditions to worsen (absenteeism, errors)

Answer:

Definition: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience or practice.

Theories of Learning:

1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov):

• Learning through association
• An unconditioned stimulus (US) is paired with a neutral stimulus (NS) repeatedly
• The NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) producing a conditioned response (CR)
• Pavlov's experiment:
  • US (food) → UR (salivation)
  • NS (bell) + US (food) → UR (salivation)
  • After repetition: CS (bell) → CR (salivation)
• OB Application: Employees associate workplace with positive/negative experiences

2. Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner):

• Learning through consequences
• Behaviour is a function of its outcomes
• Reinforcement types:
  • Positive reinforcement: Adding reward (bonus for performance)
  • Negative reinforcement: Removing unpleasant stimulus (stopping criticism)
  • Punishment: Adding unpleasant consequence (demotion for errors)
  • Extinction: Removing reinforcement (ignoring unwanted behaviour)
• Schedules: Fixed/variable ratio, fixed/variable interval
• OB Application: Performance-based pay, reward systems

3. Social Learning Theory (Bandura):

• Learning by observing and imitating others (modeling)
• Involves: Attention → Retention → Motor reproduction → Reinforcement
• Self-efficacy: Belief in one's ability to perform
• OB Application: Mentoring, role modeling, training programs

Answer:

OB Mod (Organizational Behaviour Modification): Application of reinforcement principles to modify employee behaviour in organizations. Based on Skinner's operant conditioning.

Five Steps of OB Mod:

Step 1: Identify Critical Behaviours

• Identify specific, observable, measurable behaviours
• Focus on behaviours impacting performance
• Examples: attendance, quality, productivity, safety
• Use Pareto principle (80/20 rule)

Step 2: Measure Behaviour (Baseline)

• Determine current frequency of behaviour
• Establish baseline measurement
• Use observation, records, reports
• Provides comparison point for later evaluation

Step 3: Analyze Behavioural Antecedents and Consequences (A-B-C Analysis)

• Antecedents: What triggers the behaviour (conditions, cues)
• Behaviour: The specific action
• Consequences: What follows the behaviour
• Identify functional relationships

Step 4: Develop and Implement Intervention Strategy

• Apply appropriate reinforcement strategy:
  • Positive reinforcement (most recommended)
  • Negative reinforcement
  • Punishment (least recommended)
  • Extinction
  • Combination strategies
• Train managers in intervention techniques

Step 5: Evaluate Performance Improvement

• Compare with baseline
• Measure changes in behaviour frequency
• Assess impact on performance
• Use research designs (reversal, multiple baseline)
• Make adjustments as needed

Benefits of OB Mod:

1. Objective measurement of behaviour
2. Focus on observable actions
3. Systematic approach
4. Proven effectiveness in improving productivity
5. Applicable across various organizational settings

Answer:

Definition: Communication is the process of transmitting information, ideas, thoughts, and feelings from one person to another. It is the exchange of meaning between sender and receiver.

Communication Process:

1. Sender (Source):

• Originates the message
• Has an idea, thought, or information to convey
• Initiates the communication process

2. Encoding:

• Converting thoughts into communicable form
• Selecting words, symbols, gestures
• Influenced by sender's skills, knowledge, attitudes

3. Message:

• The actual content being communicated
• Can be verbal, written, or non-verbal
• Must be clear and understandable

4. Channel (Medium):

• Path through which message travels
• Formal channels: memos, reports, meetings
• Informal channels: grapevine, casual conversations
• Choice affects effectiveness

5. Decoding:

• Receiver interprets the message
• Converting symbols back to meaning
• Influenced by receiver's skills, knowledge, perceptions

6. Receiver:

• Person(s) for whom the message is intended
• Must be attentive and able to decode

7. Feedback:

• Receiver's response to the message
• Confirms understanding or indicates misunderstanding
• Completes the communication cycle
• Makes communication two-way

8. Noise:

• Any interference in communication
• Physical (loud sounds), psychological (bias), semantic (language)
• Can occur at any stage

Answer:

Barriers to Communication:

1. Physical Barriers:

• Noise and disturbances
• Distance between sender and receiver
• Defects in communication channels
• Poor technology or equipment
• Overcome: Use proper channels, reduce noise, select appropriate medium

2. Semantic Barriers:

• Ambiguous words and language
• Technical jargon
• Different interpretations of same words
• Cultural language differences
• Overcome: Use simple language, clarify terms, avoid jargon

3. Psychological Barriers:

• Emotional state (anger, fear, anxiety)
• Prejudice and bias
• Premature evaluation
• Poor listening
• Distrust
• Overcome: Emotional control, empathy, active listening, build trust

4. Organizational Barriers:

• Complex hierarchy
• Information overload
• Timing issues
• Status differences
• Rigid rules and procedures
• Overcome: Simplify structure, open-door policy, proper channels

5. Personal Barriers:

• Attitude and values
• Perception differences
• Lack of attention
• Fear of consequences
• Overcome: Self-awareness, feedback, training

Guidelines for Effective Communication:

1. Know your audience
2. Be clear and concise
3. Use appropriate channel
4. Encourage feedback
5. Active listening
6. Be aware of non-verbal cues
7. Avoid information overload
8. Ensure proper timing
9. Follow up
10. Create open communication culture

Answer:

1. Line Organization:

• Simplest and oldest form
• Direct vertical relationships
• Authority flows from top to bottom
• Clear chain of command

Advantages:

• Simple and easy to understand
• Clear authority and responsibility
• Quick decision-making
• Discipline maintained easily

Disadvantages:

• Overloaded executives
• Lack of specialization
• Autocratic approach
• Limited communication

2. Functional Organization:

• Grouping by functions (marketing, finance, production, HR)
• Functional specialists head each department
• Based on specialization

Advantages:

• Specialization and expertise
• Efficient resource utilization
• Career paths within functions
• Easy training and development

Disadvantages:

• Poor coordination between departments
• Narrow perspective (functional silos)
• Slow response to environmental changes
• Goal conflict between departments

3. Matrix Organization:

• Dual reporting relationships
• Combines functional and project-based structures
• Employees report to both functional manager and project manager

Advantages:

• Flexible resource allocation
• Better coordination
• Focus on both function and project
• Promotes collaboration

Disadvantages:

• Dual authority creates confusion
• Power struggles between managers
• Complex communication
• Stress due to dual reporting

Answer:

Centralization vs. Decentralization:

Span of Control: The number of subordinates a manager can effectively supervise.

Types:

• Narrow span: Few subordinates (3-6), tall structure
• Wide span: Many subordinates (10-20), flat structure

Factors Affecting Span:

1. Manager's ability: Skilled managers can handle wider spans
2. Subordinate competence: Skilled workers need less supervision
3. Nature of work: Complex tasks → narrow span
4. Degree of planning: Well-planned → wider span
5. Communication system: Better systems → wider span
6. Physical location: Same location → wider span
7. Level of management: Lower levels typically have wider spans

Graicunas' Theory: As span increases, potential relationships increase exponentially: R = n(2ⁿ/2 + n - 1) where n = number of subordinates

Answer:

Definition: Emotional Intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognize, understand, manage, and effectively express one's own emotions and to engage and navigate successfully with others' emotions.

Goleman's Five Components of EI:

1. Self-Awareness:

• Knowing one's emotions, strengths, weaknesses, values
• Recognizing how feelings affect performance
• Accurate self-assessment
• Self-confidence
• Example: Understanding that you get frustrated during tight deadlines

2. Self-Regulation:

• Managing disruptive emotions and impulses
• Thinking before acting
• Trustworthiness and integrity
• Comfort with ambiguity
• Example: Staying calm when receiving criticism

3. Motivation:

• Internal drive beyond money or status
• Passion for work and achievement
• Optimism even in face of failure
• Organizational commitment
• Example: Taking on challenging projects for learning, not just rewards

4. Empathy:

• Understanding emotions of others
• Treating people according to their emotional needs
• Cross-cultural sensitivity
• Service orientation
• Example: Recognizing a colleague is stressed and offering help

5. Social Skills:

• Managing relationships and building networks
• Finding common ground
• Persuasion and leadership
• Team building and collaboration
• Conflict management
• Example: Successfully mediating a team dispute

Answer:

1. Leadership Effectiveness:

• Leaders with high EI inspire and motivate teams
• Better decision-making under pressure
• Create positive work environment
• Handle organizational change effectively
• Research shows 90% of top performers have high EI

2. Teamwork and Collaboration:

• Understanding and managing group emotions
• Better conflict resolution
• Enhanced communication
• Increased team cohesion and trust
• Effective cross-functional collaboration

3. Customer Relations:

• Understanding customer needs and emotions
• Better customer service
• Building long-term relationships
• Handling complaints effectively

4. Stress Management:

• Self-awareness helps identify stress triggers
• Self-regulation prevents emotional outbursts
• Better coping mechanisms
• Improved work-life balance
• Reduced burnout

5. Decision Making:

• Emotions inform decisions (not just logic)
• Avoiding impulsive decisions
• Considering emotional impact on others
• Better risk assessment

6. Organizational Benefits:

• Reduced turnover and absenteeism
• Higher job satisfaction
• Improved organizational culture
• Better change management
• Increased productivity

7. Career Success:

• EI accounts for 58% of success in all types of jobs
• Higher earners tend to have higher EI
• Better interview performance
• Stronger professional relationships
• Enhanced negotiation skills

Answer:

Definition: Organizational Development (OD) is a planned, systematic, long-range effort to improve an organization's effectiveness and health through the application of behavioural science knowledge, methods, and values.

Objectives of OD:

1. Increase organizational effectiveness and health
2. Develop self-renewing capacity
3. Improve interpersonal trust and support
4. Enhance open communication
5. Develop collaborative relationships
6. Increase level of enthusiasm and personal satisfaction
7. Create problem-solving capabilities
8. Increase personal and group responsibility for planning and implementation

Characteristics of OD:

1. Planned Change:

• Not accidental, deliberately planned
• Systematic and structured approach
• Based on diagnosis of problems

2. Long-term Effort:

• Not a quick fix
• Typically takes 2-3 years minimum
• Continuous process of improvement

3. System-wide:

• Focuses on total organization
• Not just individual or departmental
• Considers inter-dependencies

4. Top Management Support:

• Requires commitment from top leadership
• Resources and authority allocated
• Visible sponsorship essential

5. Behavioural Science Based:

• Uses psychology, sociology, anthropology
• Applied knowledge of human behaviour
• Research-based interventions

6. Use of Change Agent:

• Internal or external consultant
• Facilitates the change process
• Provides expertise and objectivity

7. Problem-Solving Orientation:

• Action research model
• Diagnosis → Intervention → Evaluation
• Data-driven approach

Answer:

1. T-Groups (Sensitivity Training):

• Small unstructured group discussions (8-12 members)
• No formal agenda or leader
• Members learn about themselves and group dynamics through interaction
• Goals:
  • Increased self-awareness
  • Greater sensitivity to others' behaviour
  • Better understanding of group processes
  • Improved listening skills
• Process: Members share feelings, give/receive feedback, examine group dynamics
• Criticism: Can be emotionally intense, effects may not transfer to workplace

2. Survey Feedback:

• Systematic collection of data through questionnaires
• Data analyzed and fed back to organizational members
• Members collectively discuss findings and plan actions
• Steps:
  1. Plan the survey (questionnaire design)
  2. Collect data from organizational members
  3. Analyze and summarize results
  4. Feed data back to groups
  5. Groups discuss and identify problems
  6. Action planning and implementation
• Advantage: Data-driven, involves entire organization, identifies systemic issues

3. Team Building:

• Improving the effectiveness of work teams
• Enhancing interpersonal relationships and task processes
• Activities include:
  • Goal setting and prioritization
  • Role analysis and clarification
  • Process analysis (how team works)
  • Interpersonal relationship development
• Process:
  1. Identify team problems through assessment
  2. Collect and share relevant data
  3. Develop action plans collaboratively
  4. Implement changes
  5. Evaluate outcomes
• Benefits: Better communication, clearer roles, increased commitment, improved performance

Answer:

Definition: Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint, or demand related to what they desire and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important.

Sources of Work Stress:

1. Organizational Factors:

• Task demands (job design, working conditions, physical layout)
• Role demands (role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload)
• Interpersonal demands (group pressures, leadership style)
• Organizational structure (centralized, rigid rules)
• Organizational life stage (downsizing, merging)

2. Individual Factors:

• Family problems
• Economic problems
• Personality (Type A vs Type B)
• Health issues
• Life changes (marriage, death, relocation)

3. Environmental Factors:

• Economic uncertainty
• Political uncertainty
• Technological change
• Social changes

Consequences of Stress:

1. Physiological:

• Headaches and migraines
• High blood pressure
• Heart disease
• Weakened immune system
• Insomnia

2. Psychological:

• Anxiety and depression
• Job dissatisfaction
• Burnout
• Emotional exhaustion
• Reduced self-confidence

3. Behavioural:

• Absenteeism
• Decreased productivity
• Increased errors
• Substance abuse
• Turnover

Answer:

Individual Level Strategies:

1. Physical:

• Regular exercise and fitness
• Adequate sleep and rest
• Balanced nutrition
• Yoga and meditation
• Deep breathing exercises

2. Psychological:

• Time management skills
• Positive thinking
• Setting realistic goals
• Cognitive restructuring
• Relaxation techniques (progressive muscle relaxation)

3. Social:

• Building support networks
• Seeking counseling
• Sharing feelings with trusted people
• Maintaining work-life balance
• Engaging in hobbies

Organizational Level Strategies:

1. Job-Related:

• Job redesign (reduce ambiguity, increase autonomy)
• Role clarity (clear job descriptions)
• Realistic job previews
• Participative decision-making
• Workload management

2. Structural:

• Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs)
• Wellness programs
• Flexible work arrangements
• Sabbaticals and leave policies
• Stress audits

3. Relational:

• Supportive supervision
• Team building activities
• Open communication channels
• Conflict resolution mechanisms
• Mentoring programs

4. Environmental:

• Ergonomic workspace design
• Noise reduction
• Proper lighting and ventilation
• Break areas and recreational facilities
• Comfortable temperature

Answer:

Locus of Control is a personality dimension that describes the degree to which people believe they control their own fate.

Internal Locus of Control:

• Believe they control what happens to them
• Take responsibility for their actions
• More proactive and achievement-oriented
• Higher job satisfaction
• Better suited for complex tasks
• More likely to seek information and take action
• Example: "My promotion was due to my hard work"

External Locus of Control:

• Believe external forces control their lives
• Attribute outcomes to luck, fate, or powerful others
• More compliant and conforming
• Prefer structured, routine work
• Less satisfied with jobs
• Example: "I got promoted because I was lucky"

OB Implications:

• Internals perform better in complex tasks
• Internals more satisfied with participative management
• Externals prefer directive management
• Selection and placement decisions should consider locus of control

Answer:

Impression Management (IM) is the process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others form of them.

Techniques:

1. Self-promotion: Highlighting abilities and accomplishments
2. Ingratiation: Flattery and favor-doing to appear likeable
3. Exemplification: Going above and beyond to appear dedicated
4. Intimidation: Appearing threatening to gain power
5. Supplication: Appearing needy to get help

Workplace Applications:

• Job interviews: Candidates present best selves
• Performance appraisals: Employees emphasize achievements
• Networking: Building favorable reputation
• Leadership: Projecting confidence and competence

Risks:

• Can be perceived as manipulative if overdone
• Inconsistency leads to loss of credibility
• Exhausting to maintain false impressions

Answer:

Organizational Politics refers to activities that are not required as part of one's formal role but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization.

Causes:

1. Ambiguous goals and scarcity of resources
2. Non-programmed decisions
3. Organizational change
4. Self-serving senior managers
5. Poor communication

Political Tactics:

1. Controlling information flow
2. Building coalitions and alliances
3. Impression management
4. Controlling agenda
5. Playing the expert
6. Using outside experts

Managing Political Behaviour:

1. Set example of ethical behaviour
2. Provide adequate resources
3. Clear policies and procedures
4. Open communication
5. Reduce uncertainty through planning
6. Fair reward systems

Answer:

Workforce Diversity refers to the differences among employees in terms of age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, physical ability, and other characteristics.

Types:

1. Surface-level: Observable differences (age, gender, race)
2. Deep-level: Values, personality, work preferences

Benefits:

1. Broader perspectives and creativity
2. Better problem-solving
3. Improved customer understanding
4. Enhanced organizational reputation
5. Larger talent pool

Challenges:

1. Communication difficulties
2. Resistance to change
3. Potential conflicts
4. Stereotyping and discrimination
5. Integration difficulties

Managing Diversity:

1. Top management commitment
2. Diversity training programs
3. Inclusive policies and practices
4. Mentoring programs
5. Diverse hiring practices
6. Celebrate differences
7. Address discrimination promptly